This is a working overview of 胸腺素α1, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-03-04. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
Quantifying thymosin alpha-1 in a sample usually relies on reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The peptide lacks strong chromophores, so detection often occurs at 214 nm, where the peptide backbone absorbs. Mass spectrometry provides confirmatory identification and can detect sequence variants or truncations. Immunoassays have been used in biological matrices, but they may cross-react with related fragments. For purity assessment, chromatographic peak area gives the main component percentage, while mass accuracy verifies molecular identity.
The lyophilized peptide is generally stable for extended periods when kept cold and dry. Once dissolved, aqueous solutions are less stable; hydrolysis, oxidation, and aggregation can degrade the material. Storage at -20 °C or lower slows these processes. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are best avoided because they can promote aggregation. The exact shelf life depends on formulation, pH, and concentration, so stability studies are typically performed for each specific product.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
Lyophilized material is typically treated as a hygroscopic solid that should be brought to room temperature before the container is opened, which limits condensation on the powder. Reconstitution is commonly done with sterile water or a buffered diluent, and gentle mixing is preferred over vigorous agitation to reduce foaming and surface adsorption. Because peptides can bind to plastic and glass, diluents containing a small amount of carrier protein are sometimes used in laboratory work. Working solutions are generally aliquoted and prepared fresh rather than subjected to repeated freezing and thawing.
Stability depends on temperature, pH, and the number of freeze-thaw events the sample has experienced. Freeze-dried material is commonly held at -20 °C or colder, while reconstituted liquid is kept cold and used within a short window. Extreme pH and prolonged light exposure can promote deamidation, oxidation, or aggregation, particularly at asparagine and methionine positions. Adsorption to container walls can lower the measured concentration of a dilute solution even when the peptide molecules themselves remain intact.
Routine handling calls for storage of the lyophilized powder at refrigerated temperatures, away from light, in a sealed container. Working solutions are often prepared in sterile water or buffer and kept cold between uses. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are generally avoided because they can promote aggregation and loss of material. Laboratories usually record lot number, reconstitution date, and storage conditions so that any change in behavior can be traced to a specific preparation.
Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography is the standard technique for assessing purity and concentration, because the peptide's hydrophobicity allows clean separation from related impurities. Mass spectrometry confirms molecular identity and detects sequence errors or truncations. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping supply additional structural confirmation when required. Chromatographic purity values reported on certificates of analysis describe the proportion of the main peak and do not by themselves establish biological activity.
They were the first set of nonsense mutations to be discovered, isolated by Richard H. Epstein and Charles Steinberg and named after their friend and graduate Caltech student Harris Bernstein, whose last name means "amber" in German (cf. Bernstein). Viruses with amber mutations are characterized by their ability to infect only certain strains of bacteria, known as amber suppressors. These bacteria carry their own mutation that allows a recovery of function in the mutant viruses. For example, a mutation in the tRNA that recognizes the amber stop codon allows translation to "read through" the codon and produce a full-length protein, thereby recovering the normal form of the protein and "suppressing" the amber mutation. Thus, amber mutants are an entire class of virus mutants that can grow in bacteria that contain amber suppressor mutations. Similar suppressors are known for ochre and opal stop codons as well. tRNA molecules carrying unnatural aminoacids have been designed to recognize the amber stop codon in bacterial RNA. This technology allows for incorporation of orthogonal aminoacids (such as p-azidophenylalanine) at specific locations of the target protein.
=== EC 2.7.3: Phosphotransferases with a nitrogenous group as acceptor === EC 2.7.3.1: guanidinoacetate kinase EC 2.7.3.2: creatine kinase EC 2.7.3.3: arginine kinase EC 2.7.3.4: taurocyamine kinase EC 2.7.3.5: lombricine kinase EC 2.7.3.6: hypotaurocyamine kinase EC 2.7.3.7: opheline kinase EC 2.7.3.8: ammonia kinase EC 2.7.3.9: phosphoenolpyruvate—protein phosphotransferase EC 2.7.3.10: agmatine kinase EC 2.7.3.11: now EC 2.7.13.1, protein-histidine pros-kinase EC 2.7.3.12: now EC 2.7.13.2, protein-histidine tele-kinase EC 2.7.3.13: glutamine kinase
== Adverse effects == Adverse effects include hypersensitivity reactions and allergic reactions, immune system disorders, skin disorders including hives, oedema and widespread rashes. Additionally, the following adverse effects have been reported: heartburn, indigestion, tiredness, diarrhoea, constipation, loss of appetite, general malaise, dizziness, insomnia, headache, and decreased pulse rate. It does not have systemic anticholinergic side effects. Mebeverine can, on highly rare occasions, cause drug-induced acute angle closure glaucoma. In a urine drug-screening test, mebeverine can affect a false positive result for amphetamines.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The Journal of Biological Chemistry publishes research in any area of biochemistry or molecular biology in one online-only issue per week. Molecular & Cellular Proteomics is a monthly online only publication. Articles appearing in MCP "...describe the structural and functional properties of proteins and their expression, particularly with respect to the developmental time courses of the organism of which they are a part." The journal also publishes other content such as "HUPO views" (reports from the Human Proteome Organization), proceedings from HUPO meetings, and the proceedings of the International Symposium On Mass Spectrometry In The Life Sciences. The Journal of Lipid Research covers "...the science of lipids in health and disease. The Journal emphasizes lipid function and the biochemical and genetic regulation of lipid metabolism. In addition, JLR publishes manuscripts on patient-oriented and epidemiological research relating to altered lipid metabolism, including modification of dietary lipids." ASBMB Today is the society's monthly news magazine. It contains extensive coverage of awards, meetings, research highlights, job placement advertising and human interest articles. All ASBMB members receive a complimentary subscription to ASBMB Today. The online version of the magazine features daily publishing.
With an appropriate exercise program, dietary supplementation with 3 grams of HMB per day has been shown to increase exercise-induced gains in muscle size, muscle strength and power, and lean body mass, reduce exercise-induced skeletal muscle damage, and expedite recovery from high-intensity exercise. Based upon limited clinical research, HMB supplementation may also improve aerobic exercise performance and increase gains in aerobic fitness when combined with high-intensity interval training. These effects of HMB are more pronounced in untrained individuals and athletes who perform high intensity resistance or aerobic exercise. In resistance-trained populations, the effects of HMB on muscle strength and lean body mass are limited. HMB affects muscle size, strength, mass, power, and recovery in part by stimulating myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown through various mechanisms, including the activation of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and inhibition of proteasome-mediated proteolysis in skeletal muscles. The efficacy of HMB supplementation for reducing skeletal muscle damage from prolonged or high-intensity exercise is affected by the time that it is used relative to exercise. The greatest reduction in skeletal muscle damage from a single bout of exercise has been shown to occur when HMB-Ca is ingested 1–2 hours prior to exercise or HMB-FA is ingested 30–60 minutes prior to exercise. Evidence suggests that HMB's effects on exercise performance and body composition may be enhanced by creatine supplementation.
=== Antimineralocorticoid activity === Progesterone is a potent antimineralocorticoid. It has 1000% of the affinity of aldosterone, the major endogenous agonist, for the human MR, and 100% of the affinity of aldosterone for the rat MR. Progesterone produces antimineralocorticoid effects such as natriuresis (excretion of sodium in the urine) at normal physiological concentrations. A 200 mg dose of oral progesterone is considered to be approximately equivalent in antimineralocorticoid effect to a 25 to 50 mg dose of the potent antimineralocorticoid spironolactone, which itself is a derivative of progesterone. Doses of progesterone of 50 to 200 mg by intramuscular injection, which are similar to progesterone exposure in the third trimester of pregnancy, have also been reported to produce antimineralocorticoid-like effects. The antimineralocorticoid effects of progesterone underlie its ability to lower blood pressure and reduce water and salt retention and its potential application in the treatment of hypertension. An active metabolite of progesterone, 11-deoxycorticosterone (21-hydroxyprogesterone), is a precursor of aldosterone and has strong mineralocorticoid activity (i.e., is a strong agonist of the MR). However, it is formed in relatively small amounts, and any such effects produced by it are usually outweighed by the antimineralocorticoid activity of progesterone. Progesterone may be a relatively weak antimineralocorticoid in vivo.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Third, Article 101 of the TFEU prohibits cartels or collusive practices, including competitors engaging in (a) price fixing, (b) limiting production, (c) sharing markets, (d) applying dissimilar conditions to equivalent transactions, and (e) making contracts subject to unconnected obligations. According to Article 101(2) any such agreements between undertakings are automatically void. Article 101(3) establishes exemptions, if the collusion is for distributional or technological innovation, gives consumers a "fair share" of the benefit and does not include unreasonable restraints that risk eliminating competition anywhere. For example, in Parker ITR Srl v Commission eleven corporations that manufactured marine hoses for offshore oil rigs were fined €131 million for rigging bids and sharing markets worldwide – they would designate a "bid champion" in each case to raise prices. Secret cartels are often hard to prove, so the courts allow competition regulators to establish collusion where there is no other plausible explanation for price rises. Some agreements among businesses, however, can be highly beneficial. For instance, in a decision on the Conseil Européen de la Construction d'Appareils Domestiques, the Commission held an agreement among washing machine makers to phase out production of low-efficiency machines was lawful, especially since it would lead to "reduced pollution from electricity generation".
== National variants == Similar meat and pastry recipes include the Czech klobásník, the Belgian worstenbroodje, the Dutch saucijzenbroodje, the German Münsterländer Wurstbrötchen and sausage bread in the United States. Hong Kong has developed its own style of sausage roll. Instead of having sausage meat wrapped in puff pastry like the traditional Western style, the Hong Kong style "sausage bun" (Chinese: 腸仔包) consists of a sausage wrapped inside a soft milk bread style bun.
== Methods used == Whistleblowers who may be at risk from those they are exposing are now using encryption methods and anonymous content-sharing software to protect their identity. Tor, a highly accessible anonymity network, is frequently used by whistleblowers around the world. Tor has undergone several large security updates to protect the identities of potential whistleblowers who may wish to leak information anonymously. Specialized whistleblowing software has been built on top of the Tor technology to incentivize and simplify its adoption for secure whistleblowing. Considering the risks faced by whistleblowers, most whistleblowing software has been developed as open-source projects, allowing for public audits and transparency. Built on well-defined design principles, examples include GlobaLeaks and SecureDrop.
While von Grosse's claim that Fermi was actually producing protactinium (element 91) was quickly tested and disproved, Noddack's proposal that the uranium had been shattered into two or more much smaller fragments was simply ignored by most because existing nuclear theory did not include a way for this to be possible. Fermi and his team maintained that they were in fact synthesizing a new element, but the issue remained unresolved for several years. Although the many different and unknown radioactive half-lives in the experiment's results showed that several nuclear reactions were occurring, Fermi's group could not prove that element 93 was being produced unless they could isolate it chemically. They and many other scientists attempted to accomplish this, including Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner who were among the best radiochemists in the world at the time and supporters of Fermi's claim, but they all failed. Much later, it was determined that the main reason for this failure was because the predictions of element 93's chemical properties were based on a periodic table which lacked the actinide series. This arrangement placed protactinium below tantalum, uranium below tungsten, and further suggested that element 93, at that point referred to as eka-rhenium, should be similar to the group 7 elements, including manganese and rhenium.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
Reverse-phase HPLC with ultraviolet detection at 214 nm is common. Mass spectrometry is used to confirm molecular identity and detect modifications. Immunoassays exist but may not distinguish the intact peptide from fragments.